The art continuity in the development of Indonesia-Hindu fine art carried it over into new traditions in the age of the Islamic kings.
As was true in the age of Hindu kingdoms, the development of Islamic art in Indonesia was centralized in the palaces of the kings. In these cultural centers the art were developed and shaped in accordance with both the ancient art traditions and the new values being introduced.
In its initial period of development, the Islamic art of Indonesia was the result of the assimilation of the existing Indonesia-Hindu art traditions in relation to new standards and functions. The Islamic religion, with its new cultural values, did not have a major impact on the image of the fine arts in the beginning. Eventually, however, Islam’s tolerant nature allowed for and supported the process of continuity in traditional fine art, leading into new forms.
The development of Islamic fine art in Indonesia grew out the tradition of craft. The stone architecture of the Hindu period, with the exception of stone burial sites and gateways, did not develop much. Other structures, such as mosques and palaces, were the result of the wood-based architecture which was much older and developed for use in the natural environment of Indonesia
The structure of Islamic burial sites in Indonesia was based in the concepts inherent in the construction of prehistoric burial sites and the later temple based. There was one type of burial site, however, which did not originate from the pre-Islamic period. This type is one of the oldest of those constructed before the Islamic kingdoms were formed. This type of burial place originated from Gujarat in India, the area from which Islam was spread into Indonesia. Several of these Gujarat-style graves can be found in Samudra Pasai and Gresik. The Gujarat-style, however, was not widely employed or repeated in the construction of graves in Indonesia. In fact, the type of burial site whose structure originated in the shape of the punden worship site or the candi temple was consistently used to determine the shape of the under structure of the type burial site known as kijing. The two pillars called maesan also used were reminiscent of the structural decorations of the upper parts of temples, or other symbolic structures from the Indonesia-Hindu religion.
The cultural transformation process occurring during the period of the establishment of Islamic authority by the Wali or Moslem saints in the coastal areas saw the artistic traditions of the Hindu period become the basis for the development of Islamic architecture in Indonesia. The two main types of structures left the Islamic period are the mosques and palaces.
The oldest mosques in Banten, Cirebon, Demak, Kudus, Jepara, and Tuban are examples of mosques whose structural basis was derived from that of the pendapa meeting hall of the Hindu age. Mosques done in the pendapa style were also built in Madura, Sumatra and Kalimantan, all areas in which meetings halls were known and used.
These meeting halls with a large, central open space were constructed of wood with rows of pillars supporting a pyramid-shaped roof. This basic structure was converted into a mosque through the construction of a prayer room with a recess or niche in which the pulpit was placed. This space was enclosed with a wall made of bricks.
The tradition of using bricks in construction carried over from Majapahit was also seen in the construction of the gateway and fence surrounding the mosque. The structure of the gateway was reminiscent of that of the entryway to temples, with the exception being the omission or conversion of the ornamentation so that the result was more in keeping with the demands of Islam. The structure of mosque or cemetery gateway was not much different from that of the gateways of the previously mentioned pura houses of worship in Bali.
In general the mosques in Indonesia lacked the wealth of decoration and ornamentation of the mosques in the other Islamic nations of the time. Decoration was found only on the wall of the niche in the prayer room, and reflected the decorative traditions of the Majapahit period. The ornamentation was achieved by applying a plaster mixture to brick wall. Hindu flora motifs were then carved into the surface of the plaster. This technique can be observed in the ancient mosques of Cirebon, Demak, Kudus and Jepara.
Arabic calligraphy motif had yet to become the main characteristic of decoration in these ancient mosques. In fact pieces of Chinese porcelain embedded in the walls indicate a touch of the Chinese culture in the initial stages of the development of the Indonesia-Islam culture. This was particularly true of the mosques found in the coastal areas of Java. The influence of the Chinese culture was also apparent in the style of the decorations in and object found at the ancient palaces or the graves of the Wali or Moslem saints like those in Gunung Jati Cirebon.
As was stated above, palaces had been the centers of cultural activities since the Hindu period and habit was carried over into the age of Islam. The palaces also functioned as the centers of administration for the kingdoms and as the homes of kings. Therefore, in accordance with the ancient cosmic-magic view of the Indonesian culture, the palaces were considered the mystic centers radiating influence over all aspects of society.
The organization and construction of the halls in the palace or kraton complex was therefore a direct reflection of the life philosophy inherent in the feudal agrarian culture.
The oldest kraton or palaces still in existence like those in Cirebon, West Java, and Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta in Central java, are viewed as remnants of the classic architecture of the Islamic age, although they were repaired and renovated during the Dutch colonial period.
Visitor to these places would first pass through the main gate and the courtyard, an important element of the unity of the kraton complex, with their banyan trees. They would then enter the halls which were the administrative centers for the kingdom. These included the hall functioning as throne room, one where trials were held, and another for ceremonies attended by the king. Once visitors passed through the gateway to the ceremonial hall, they had entered the main section of the kraton which consists of structures and rooms functioning as performance halls for the wayang shadow puppet theater, the king’s reception hall, the room used for the circumcision of princes, the hall for the performance of dances and the karawitan chorus and gamelan orchestra.
All of the halls in the kraton complex were constructed in an architectural tradition which dictated that each structure take a form in accordance with its function. The ground plans, shape and the construction of the roofs all tool on various forms such as joglo, limas and tajug.
The aesthetic values of any given people, as reflected in their palaces, are not apparent only in the outer structures, but in the interiors as well.
The throne room, with its bare wood construction and symbolically painted decorative carvings, offered a sense of glory and put forth an image of nobility. The carvings on pillars, beams, walls and ceiling were all done in line with the artistic standards of the palace. The appearance of the decorations was calculated not only in terms of aesthetic, but also in terms of the status or sacral value of the kraton. Several structural decorations, such as the bases and the capitals of the pillars, the tops of partitions and the beams supporting the roof, are elements which reinforce the nobility of the interior of the kraton. Surface decorations appear on the walls, the partitions, the ceilings, doors and shutters. These take the form of decorative carvings and the ornamental plaster. The carved wooden panels hung on the walls along with glass paintings, both of which carry symbolic meaning, are other important decorative elements.
The wealth of decoration of the palace interiors reflects the advancements made in development of the craft. Carving skills are also apparent in the palace furniture like tables, chairs, beds, cupboards and many other items. The exact source of the tradition of wood carving employed in the production of this furniture remains unclear, although there is a similarity in motif and design to furniture originating from Europe and China.
Besides the functional objects mentioned above, the kraton also houses ceremonial items and heirlooms like weapons, gamelan, palace carriages, flags and standards, wayang, masks and others.
One of the heirloom weapons of the palace was the keris dagger. These daggers not only functioned as weapons of warfare, but also symbolized the character of the wearer and functioned as an attribute and accessory for the wardrobes of kings and nobles.
As an example of metal working skills the keris was mentioned in several historical documents from the Hindu age. The fact that the keris was in use during the Majapahit period can confirmed with a look at the carvings on the walls at the Panataran temple. There is therefore a strong possibility that the keris was being made in preceding period among other items of palace art. Due to the expansive area covered by the Majapahit kingdom, the metal working skills required in dagger making were mastered in several types of keris developed, like the Balinese-style dagger and those done in the styles of Madura, Sumatra and Sulawesi, among others.
The Islamic kings, in particular those of the Mataram age, developed the keris dagger, along with spears and sword of court art.
The type of keris dagger known as the wilah was forged by expert metal smiths called empu. This type of dagger would be made in a way shape like that of a creeping snake, or a straight form ending in a convex point, depending on its symbolic meaning. Symbolic significance also can be seen in the decoration on the surface of the pamor type of dagger. This decoration reflected not only aesthetic values, but also was filled with symbolic meaning.
Arabic calligraphy can be found on the decorated surfaced of the pamor dagger as well as wayang and other motifs originating from the Hindu age. The symbolism of the keris is also apparent in the handles which are called ukiran. The handle was made from variety of carefully selected woods, and was decorated with designs based on mythical animals, human forms, or wayang. The designs based in human or animal forms were recognizable due o the standards and teachings of Islam. It is the handles which enable a concrete differentiation between the keris of the Islamic age and the keris of the Hindu period, like those found in Bali with the handles carved in the form of giants.
The beauty of the wood carving found on keris it also visible in the sheath known as wrangka, which was made from a specifically selected kind of wood. The upper end of the wrangka was called ladrang when it had a curved shape rounded. The part of sheath closest to the handle was covered with a layer of either brass or silver, or at times gilded with gold. This protective metal layer was called pendok and was decorated with a variety of techniques.
In above discussion of Bali Classic art, the masks used in dance and drama performances were mentioned. The tradition of mask making, or rather the carving of masks with chisels, originated in the Hindu period, but was carried over by the mask makers into the Islamic period, and is in fact still being developed with a variety of techniques.
During the Mataram kingdom the wayang and karawitan chorus and gamelan orchestra experienced many advances with the development of mask dances for the purpose of telling the wayang stories. This innovation gave rise to the wayang wong of Japanese opera with its masked performers.
The use of masks in dance-drama was supportive of the role of the mask as an educative-communicative media based in Islamic teachings. And in this way the making of masks previously limited to court circles was copied by all levels of society as the message of Islam spread. This expansion of horizons also gave rise to greater variety of masks influenced by the flavor of local cultures.
The development of the art of mask making occurred alongside that of the art leather puppet making. This can be seen particularly in relation to the facial expressions, the stylization of certain parts of the face, as well as in the coloring. A formula was achieved which dictated the type of facial expressions or wanda depicted. The wanda expressions included the rude rough type and the fierce, refined, knightly, giant or monster types, as well as the clown and god types, along with a variety of others.
As can be seen from the above discussion, there is a relationship between the creative forms that the wayang puppets and topeng masks took.
The wayang puppet theater of the Hindu age was further developed by the wali and Islamic kings. As was stated above, the form the wayang puppets took was based in the decorative carvings on the temples of East java. The forms of the wayang character were modified until they fulfilled Islamic concepts and standards which did not accept the realistic portrayal of human forms. The symbolic forms achieved through his process of stylization constituted the transformation of the wayang prototypes of the Hindu age through changes in various elements, into wayang puppets and their three dimensional wooden counterparts. Because the forms the wayang took were symbolic, the individual wayang puppets were known and recognized by their wanda or expressions, which were the visualization of human personality types. This was also the case in the development of masks.
Wayang took many forms including the wayang kulit or wayang purwa leather puppets; watang papan or wayang krucil and wayang beber, which were painted story scrolls.
Another type of wayang was the wayang golek which was a three dimensional puppet whose head, torso and arms were made of wood. The head and torso were joined by a bamboo rod which was inserted through the hollow torso and attached to the head through insertion into a notch in the neck. This bamboo rod could be manipulated by the dalang puppet master.
The torso and the bottom part of the bamboo rod, which served as a handle, were covered with cloth which took the form of the type of clothing worn in dance performances.
There were also wayang forms which were differentiated according to which story they were being used to tell. Most of the wayang stories were related to the Ramayana and Mahabarata legends which had been developed to fit into the Indonesia-Hindu culture. The type of wayang used to tell Islamic stories and the Panji tales were known as wayang menak or wayang sasak, while the stories of the prophets and those the ambiya were told through the wayang dobel. The wayang dupara, wayang gedog and wayang krucil, or wayang klitik mentioned above were used to present semi-historical stories.
As in the case of the topeng or mask art, the art of wayang spread out from the palaces to all levels of society as a media for religious education. Because of this a wide variety of wayang with local color sprang up in the various regions.
The clothing painted onto the wayang figures, or actually made from fabric, reflected the designs characteristic of batik textiles. Batik fabric is created by the blocking out of areas with wax and the dyeing of the unmasked sections of the cloth in order to achieve the desired design or motif. The production of batik was done according to the garments of royalty. The hot, liquid wax used to delineate which areas dye at a given step in the batiking process was applied with a bamboo and copper tool called the canting. Dye sometimes also was applied through the canting.
It is certain that batik was known as early as the Hindu period because the kings and gods and goddesses depicted in the statues of the Singhasari period were garbed in batik. The motifs in the batik of the Hindu period were inspired by the variety of motifs used in the temple carvings, which ranged from flora and fauna motifs to the symbols of the Hindu religion. The batik designs of the Islamic age were stylized adaptations of the realistic Hindu motifs and designs. The Hindu motifs were stylized through the modification of certain parts of the flora or fauna depicted into geometric shapes. An example of the stylization of a flora motif is the mirong bird wing design. Examples of the conversion of floral or plant motifs into stylized geometric forms are the kawung and parangrusak motifs. These decorative batik motifs also indicated the status of the person wearing them. For example, batik with the parangrusak motif would indicate the wearer was a member of the royal family.
The batik motifs of the Islamic period also included Arabic calligraphy mosque motifs, carpet designs and wayang motifs. The mega mendung cloud motif and the coral reef motif known as wadasan which originated from Chinese influence also enriched the batik of that period.
Because batik was used in palace ceremonies it was produced in line with strict technical and aesthetic standard. The batik makers were required to have the highest level of skill and sensitivity of taste necessary to the production of designs which did not go out of the bounds of the established standards.
Batik, as a classic art centered in the palace, was not only known as the formal attire of kings, but was also used in the standards and flags utilized in royal ceremonies. The Arabic calligraphy motifs and the designs symbolic of the kingdom played a role in the composition of the designs found on the royal standards or banners.
The eventual extension of the use of classic batik to the public resulted in a wide variety of regional or local batik motifs of different styles. As batik fabric became more of a daily need among the people new ways of producing it evolved. This took batik production from the realm of the original tedious hand painting method which required a high level of dexterity and skill, to the mass production technique which involved the dipping of a copper stamp with a set design into wax before it was pressed onto the surface of the cloth. Diferentiation is made between the hand painted batik and the stamped batik is terms of its artistic and aesthetic value.
The attractiveness of the Arabic alphabet motivated the development of Islamic calligraphy with its varied functions. In classic Indonesia-Islam art the Arabic calligraphy was not widely used to decorate mosques. However, Arabic calligraphy appears in several of the mosques found in areas outside Java where the mosques of other nations with their use of calligraphy for decoration were used as patterns. Mosque like those built in Aceh and Medan exhibit a wealth of Arabic calligraphy and a style to that of the mosques of Persia or India.
Most of the Arabic calligraphy found in Indonesia is used more as a decorative motif which emphasizes its aesthetic value rather than as a form of writing.
As was the case with the calligraphy motif appearing on the handles of the keris daggers previously discussed, the calligraphy on the banners or standards also had a symbolic significance. This use of calligraphy to convey a symbolic meaning is also seen in the golass paintings known as Macan Ali found in the Kasepuhan palace in Cirebon. Macan Ali is a kind of glass painting in which the form of a tiger is composed of Arabic letters to form the symbol for the Kasepuhan kingdom.
Glass painting, a form of classic painting was developed through the assimilation of wayang motifs as its central subject. These motifs were composed of the Arabic calligraphy used for prayer and of verses from the Islamic holy book the Koran. The main purpose of the Arabic alphabet in these paintings was to fill in the surface of the wayang figures which were in turn made up of string of words written in Arabic calligraphy.
The modification of the wayang was not extended to the wayang beber scrolls which continued to appear as a rolled up segment of fabric with story painted on it. In the presentation of the wayang beber stories the dalang puppet master would unroll the scroll as he told the tale depicted there. This type of storytelling, painting had been known since the Hindu age and was further developed with changes in form and story lines which made this art form more appropriate to the needs of the Indonesia’s answer to Persia’s Islamic miniatures in terms of functioning as an educative media.
Both the glass painting and the wayang beber have been carried on as traditional art forms in certain regions of the archipelago. In fact, up to now, these painting forms constitute a source of ideas for contemporary Indonesian artists seeking new ways of expressing themselves.
Besides the calligraphy wayang of Islam in Indonesia, the art of expressive calligraphy also developed as a contemporary art form. On the other hand the techniques employed in the production of classic batik are utilized by contemporary artists as a media of expression which is termed batik painting.
As was true in the age of Hindu kingdoms, the development of Islamic art in Indonesia was centralized in the palaces of the kings. In these cultural centers the art were developed and shaped in accordance with both the ancient art traditions and the new values being introduced.
In its initial period of development, the Islamic art of Indonesia was the result of the assimilation of the existing Indonesia-Hindu art traditions in relation to new standards and functions. The Islamic religion, with its new cultural values, did not have a major impact on the image of the fine arts in the beginning. Eventually, however, Islam’s tolerant nature allowed for and supported the process of continuity in traditional fine art, leading into new forms.
The development of Islamic fine art in Indonesia grew out the tradition of craft. The stone architecture of the Hindu period, with the exception of stone burial sites and gateways, did not develop much. Other structures, such as mosques and palaces, were the result of the wood-based architecture which was much older and developed for use in the natural environment of Indonesia
The structure of Islamic burial sites in Indonesia was based in the concepts inherent in the construction of prehistoric burial sites and the later temple based. There was one type of burial site, however, which did not originate from the pre-Islamic period. This type is one of the oldest of those constructed before the Islamic kingdoms were formed. This type of burial place originated from Gujarat in India, the area from which Islam was spread into Indonesia. Several of these Gujarat-style graves can be found in Samudra Pasai and Gresik. The Gujarat-style, however, was not widely employed or repeated in the construction of graves in Indonesia. In fact, the type of burial site whose structure originated in the shape of the punden worship site or the candi temple was consistently used to determine the shape of the under structure of the type burial site known as kijing. The two pillars called maesan also used were reminiscent of the structural decorations of the upper parts of temples, or other symbolic structures from the Indonesia-Hindu religion.
The cultural transformation process occurring during the period of the establishment of Islamic authority by the Wali or Moslem saints in the coastal areas saw the artistic traditions of the Hindu period become the basis for the development of Islamic architecture in Indonesia. The two main types of structures left the Islamic period are the mosques and palaces.
The oldest mosques in Banten, Cirebon, Demak, Kudus, Jepara, and Tuban are examples of mosques whose structural basis was derived from that of the pendapa meeting hall of the Hindu age. Mosques done in the pendapa style were also built in Madura, Sumatra and Kalimantan, all areas in which meetings halls were known and used.
These meeting halls with a large, central open space were constructed of wood with rows of pillars supporting a pyramid-shaped roof. This basic structure was converted into a mosque through the construction of a prayer room with a recess or niche in which the pulpit was placed. This space was enclosed with a wall made of bricks.
The tradition of using bricks in construction carried over from Majapahit was also seen in the construction of the gateway and fence surrounding the mosque. The structure of the gateway was reminiscent of that of the entryway to temples, with the exception being the omission or conversion of the ornamentation so that the result was more in keeping with the demands of Islam. The structure of mosque or cemetery gateway was not much different from that of the gateways of the previously mentioned pura houses of worship in Bali.
In general the mosques in Indonesia lacked the wealth of decoration and ornamentation of the mosques in the other Islamic nations of the time. Decoration was found only on the wall of the niche in the prayer room, and reflected the decorative traditions of the Majapahit period. The ornamentation was achieved by applying a plaster mixture to brick wall. Hindu flora motifs were then carved into the surface of the plaster. This technique can be observed in the ancient mosques of Cirebon, Demak, Kudus and Jepara.
Arabic calligraphy motif had yet to become the main characteristic of decoration in these ancient mosques. In fact pieces of Chinese porcelain embedded in the walls indicate a touch of the Chinese culture in the initial stages of the development of the Indonesia-Islam culture. This was particularly true of the mosques found in the coastal areas of Java. The influence of the Chinese culture was also apparent in the style of the decorations in and object found at the ancient palaces or the graves of the Wali or Moslem saints like those in Gunung Jati Cirebon.
As was stated above, palaces had been the centers of cultural activities since the Hindu period and habit was carried over into the age of Islam. The palaces also functioned as the centers of administration for the kingdoms and as the homes of kings. Therefore, in accordance with the ancient cosmic-magic view of the Indonesian culture, the palaces were considered the mystic centers radiating influence over all aspects of society.
The organization and construction of the halls in the palace or kraton complex was therefore a direct reflection of the life philosophy inherent in the feudal agrarian culture.
The oldest kraton or palaces still in existence like those in Cirebon, West Java, and Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta in Central java, are viewed as remnants of the classic architecture of the Islamic age, although they were repaired and renovated during the Dutch colonial period.
Visitor to these places would first pass through the main gate and the courtyard, an important element of the unity of the kraton complex, with their banyan trees. They would then enter the halls which were the administrative centers for the kingdom. These included the hall functioning as throne room, one where trials were held, and another for ceremonies attended by the king. Once visitors passed through the gateway to the ceremonial hall, they had entered the main section of the kraton which consists of structures and rooms functioning as performance halls for the wayang shadow puppet theater, the king’s reception hall, the room used for the circumcision of princes, the hall for the performance of dances and the karawitan chorus and gamelan orchestra.
All of the halls in the kraton complex were constructed in an architectural tradition which dictated that each structure take a form in accordance with its function. The ground plans, shape and the construction of the roofs all tool on various forms such as joglo, limas and tajug.
The aesthetic values of any given people, as reflected in their palaces, are not apparent only in the outer structures, but in the interiors as well.
The throne room, with its bare wood construction and symbolically painted decorative carvings, offered a sense of glory and put forth an image of nobility. The carvings on pillars, beams, walls and ceiling were all done in line with the artistic standards of the palace. The appearance of the decorations was calculated not only in terms of aesthetic, but also in terms of the status or sacral value of the kraton. Several structural decorations, such as the bases and the capitals of the pillars, the tops of partitions and the beams supporting the roof, are elements which reinforce the nobility of the interior of the kraton. Surface decorations appear on the walls, the partitions, the ceilings, doors and shutters. These take the form of decorative carvings and the ornamental plaster. The carved wooden panels hung on the walls along with glass paintings, both of which carry symbolic meaning, are other important decorative elements.
The wealth of decoration of the palace interiors reflects the advancements made in development of the craft. Carving skills are also apparent in the palace furniture like tables, chairs, beds, cupboards and many other items. The exact source of the tradition of wood carving employed in the production of this furniture remains unclear, although there is a similarity in motif and design to furniture originating from Europe and China.
Besides the functional objects mentioned above, the kraton also houses ceremonial items and heirlooms like weapons, gamelan, palace carriages, flags and standards, wayang, masks and others.
One of the heirloom weapons of the palace was the keris dagger. These daggers not only functioned as weapons of warfare, but also symbolized the character of the wearer and functioned as an attribute and accessory for the wardrobes of kings and nobles.
As an example of metal working skills the keris was mentioned in several historical documents from the Hindu age. The fact that the keris was in use during the Majapahit period can confirmed with a look at the carvings on the walls at the Panataran temple. There is therefore a strong possibility that the keris was being made in preceding period among other items of palace art. Due to the expansive area covered by the Majapahit kingdom, the metal working skills required in dagger making were mastered in several types of keris developed, like the Balinese-style dagger and those done in the styles of Madura, Sumatra and Sulawesi, among others.
The Islamic kings, in particular those of the Mataram age, developed the keris dagger, along with spears and sword of court art.
The type of keris dagger known as the wilah was forged by expert metal smiths called empu. This type of dagger would be made in a way shape like that of a creeping snake, or a straight form ending in a convex point, depending on its symbolic meaning. Symbolic significance also can be seen in the decoration on the surface of the pamor type of dagger. This decoration reflected not only aesthetic values, but also was filled with symbolic meaning.
Arabic calligraphy can be found on the decorated surfaced of the pamor dagger as well as wayang and other motifs originating from the Hindu age. The symbolism of the keris is also apparent in the handles which are called ukiran. The handle was made from variety of carefully selected woods, and was decorated with designs based on mythical animals, human forms, or wayang. The designs based in human or animal forms were recognizable due o the standards and teachings of Islam. It is the handles which enable a concrete differentiation between the keris of the Islamic age and the keris of the Hindu period, like those found in Bali with the handles carved in the form of giants.
The beauty of the wood carving found on keris it also visible in the sheath known as wrangka, which was made from a specifically selected kind of wood. The upper end of the wrangka was called ladrang when it had a curved shape rounded. The part of sheath closest to the handle was covered with a layer of either brass or silver, or at times gilded with gold. This protective metal layer was called pendok and was decorated with a variety of techniques.
In above discussion of Bali Classic art, the masks used in dance and drama performances were mentioned. The tradition of mask making, or rather the carving of masks with chisels, originated in the Hindu period, but was carried over by the mask makers into the Islamic period, and is in fact still being developed with a variety of techniques.
During the Mataram kingdom the wayang and karawitan chorus and gamelan orchestra experienced many advances with the development of mask dances for the purpose of telling the wayang stories. This innovation gave rise to the wayang wong of Japanese opera with its masked performers.
The use of masks in dance-drama was supportive of the role of the mask as an educative-communicative media based in Islamic teachings. And in this way the making of masks previously limited to court circles was copied by all levels of society as the message of Islam spread. This expansion of horizons also gave rise to greater variety of masks influenced by the flavor of local cultures.
The development of the art of mask making occurred alongside that of the art leather puppet making. This can be seen particularly in relation to the facial expressions, the stylization of certain parts of the face, as well as in the coloring. A formula was achieved which dictated the type of facial expressions or wanda depicted. The wanda expressions included the rude rough type and the fierce, refined, knightly, giant or monster types, as well as the clown and god types, along with a variety of others.
As can be seen from the above discussion, there is a relationship between the creative forms that the wayang puppets and topeng masks took.
The wayang puppet theater of the Hindu age was further developed by the wali and Islamic kings. As was stated above, the form the wayang puppets took was based in the decorative carvings on the temples of East java. The forms of the wayang character were modified until they fulfilled Islamic concepts and standards which did not accept the realistic portrayal of human forms. The symbolic forms achieved through his process of stylization constituted the transformation of the wayang prototypes of the Hindu age through changes in various elements, into wayang puppets and their three dimensional wooden counterparts. Because the forms the wayang took were symbolic, the individual wayang puppets were known and recognized by their wanda or expressions, which were the visualization of human personality types. This was also the case in the development of masks.
Wayang took many forms including the wayang kulit or wayang purwa leather puppets; watang papan or wayang krucil and wayang beber, which were painted story scrolls.
Another type of wayang was the wayang golek which was a three dimensional puppet whose head, torso and arms were made of wood. The head and torso were joined by a bamboo rod which was inserted through the hollow torso and attached to the head through insertion into a notch in the neck. This bamboo rod could be manipulated by the dalang puppet master.
The torso and the bottom part of the bamboo rod, which served as a handle, were covered with cloth which took the form of the type of clothing worn in dance performances.
There were also wayang forms which were differentiated according to which story they were being used to tell. Most of the wayang stories were related to the Ramayana and Mahabarata legends which had been developed to fit into the Indonesia-Hindu culture. The type of wayang used to tell Islamic stories and the Panji tales were known as wayang menak or wayang sasak, while the stories of the prophets and those the ambiya were told through the wayang dobel. The wayang dupara, wayang gedog and wayang krucil, or wayang klitik mentioned above were used to present semi-historical stories.
As in the case of the topeng or mask art, the art of wayang spread out from the palaces to all levels of society as a media for religious education. Because of this a wide variety of wayang with local color sprang up in the various regions.
The clothing painted onto the wayang figures, or actually made from fabric, reflected the designs characteristic of batik textiles. Batik fabric is created by the blocking out of areas with wax and the dyeing of the unmasked sections of the cloth in order to achieve the desired design or motif. The production of batik was done according to the garments of royalty. The hot, liquid wax used to delineate which areas dye at a given step in the batiking process was applied with a bamboo and copper tool called the canting. Dye sometimes also was applied through the canting.
It is certain that batik was known as early as the Hindu period because the kings and gods and goddesses depicted in the statues of the Singhasari period were garbed in batik. The motifs in the batik of the Hindu period were inspired by the variety of motifs used in the temple carvings, which ranged from flora and fauna motifs to the symbols of the Hindu religion. The batik designs of the Islamic age were stylized adaptations of the realistic Hindu motifs and designs. The Hindu motifs were stylized through the modification of certain parts of the flora or fauna depicted into geometric shapes. An example of the stylization of a flora motif is the mirong bird wing design. Examples of the conversion of floral or plant motifs into stylized geometric forms are the kawung and parangrusak motifs. These decorative batik motifs also indicated the status of the person wearing them. For example, batik with the parangrusak motif would indicate the wearer was a member of the royal family.
The batik motifs of the Islamic period also included Arabic calligraphy mosque motifs, carpet designs and wayang motifs. The mega mendung cloud motif and the coral reef motif known as wadasan which originated from Chinese influence also enriched the batik of that period.
Because batik was used in palace ceremonies it was produced in line with strict technical and aesthetic standard. The batik makers were required to have the highest level of skill and sensitivity of taste necessary to the production of designs which did not go out of the bounds of the established standards.
Batik, as a classic art centered in the palace, was not only known as the formal attire of kings, but was also used in the standards and flags utilized in royal ceremonies. The Arabic calligraphy motifs and the designs symbolic of the kingdom played a role in the composition of the designs found on the royal standards or banners.
The eventual extension of the use of classic batik to the public resulted in a wide variety of regional or local batik motifs of different styles. As batik fabric became more of a daily need among the people new ways of producing it evolved. This took batik production from the realm of the original tedious hand painting method which required a high level of dexterity and skill, to the mass production technique which involved the dipping of a copper stamp with a set design into wax before it was pressed onto the surface of the cloth. Diferentiation is made between the hand painted batik and the stamped batik is terms of its artistic and aesthetic value.
The attractiveness of the Arabic alphabet motivated the development of Islamic calligraphy with its varied functions. In classic Indonesia-Islam art the Arabic calligraphy was not widely used to decorate mosques. However, Arabic calligraphy appears in several of the mosques found in areas outside Java where the mosques of other nations with their use of calligraphy for decoration were used as patterns. Mosque like those built in Aceh and Medan exhibit a wealth of Arabic calligraphy and a style to that of the mosques of Persia or India.
Most of the Arabic calligraphy found in Indonesia is used more as a decorative motif which emphasizes its aesthetic value rather than as a form of writing.
As was the case with the calligraphy motif appearing on the handles of the keris daggers previously discussed, the calligraphy on the banners or standards also had a symbolic significance. This use of calligraphy to convey a symbolic meaning is also seen in the golass paintings known as Macan Ali found in the Kasepuhan palace in Cirebon. Macan Ali is a kind of glass painting in which the form of a tiger is composed of Arabic letters to form the symbol for the Kasepuhan kingdom.
Glass painting, a form of classic painting was developed through the assimilation of wayang motifs as its central subject. These motifs were composed of the Arabic calligraphy used for prayer and of verses from the Islamic holy book the Koran. The main purpose of the Arabic alphabet in these paintings was to fill in the surface of the wayang figures which were in turn made up of string of words written in Arabic calligraphy.
The modification of the wayang was not extended to the wayang beber scrolls which continued to appear as a rolled up segment of fabric with story painted on it. In the presentation of the wayang beber stories the dalang puppet master would unroll the scroll as he told the tale depicted there. This type of storytelling, painting had been known since the Hindu age and was further developed with changes in form and story lines which made this art form more appropriate to the needs of the Indonesia’s answer to Persia’s Islamic miniatures in terms of functioning as an educative media.
Both the glass painting and the wayang beber have been carried on as traditional art forms in certain regions of the archipelago. In fact, up to now, these painting forms constitute a source of ideas for contemporary Indonesian artists seeking new ways of expressing themselves.
Besides the calligraphy wayang of Islam in Indonesia, the art of expressive calligraphy also developed as a contemporary art form. On the other hand the techniques employed in the production of classic batik are utilized by contemporary artists as a media of expression which is termed batik painting.
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