Indonesian-Hindu Classic Art

Art is a form of expression originating in the spiritual experience of the artist which transcends all visualization achieved through reasoning. Indonesia-Hindu art is not solely a product of in-depth thinking of perceptions based in the theory and standards of art or iconography in the tradition of Indian art. It the result of the efforts and interpretation of Indonesian artists and their fusion of two art traditions through experience and understanding in response to the demands of the Hindu culture which existed in Indonesia from the 7th to the 15th centuries
This fusion of artistic traditions went on over a period of centuries and resulted in changes in artistic styles in architecture, carving and sculpture, as well as in painting. Several art theories and standards originating in the centers or Buddhist religions (Kemper, 1959, p.10) colored the thinking of and inspired artists of Indonesia. These art activities guaranteed the continuation of adherence to religion based in the way of life of the agrarian people of Indonesia which placed the king and this family on a level with the gods. The conciliation of the two diverse religious sources can be observed in the structures, carving, sculptures and paintings of the Hindu kingdom period.
Indonesia-Hindu age temples not only reflect the aesthetic values achieved by the Indonesian architects of the time, but also reflect the expansion of artistic horizons supported by the fusion of two cultural elements with their differing traditions. The architects, assisted by highly skilled sculptors, carried out their duties to immortalize the king and his power through the production of art works based in the standards cosmic mountain, with its composition, use of space and unified, balanced and harmonious artistic sensitivities and tastes in art rooted in religious aspirations. An example of this the Lara Jonggrang temple complex in Prambanan, Central Java which is a monument to the Mataram Tua kingdom. This complex was built in the 10th century as a symbol of the enthronement of the gods of the Hindu religion.
The main temple and the smaller temples of this complex were placed in the concentric arrangement known as mandala, which symbolized the unity of the world of the gods, as well as the administrative hierarchy of the kingdom existing at the time.
The aesthetic values inherent in this temple complex of the last Central Java kingdom can be seen especially well in one of the main temples in the center of the complex. The structure of the Shiva temple exhibits a fusion and unification of the various temple elements which reflect a maturity in architectural art achieved through the development of architectural traditions over a period of three centuries.
The wealth of decoration with its perfection of stone carving techniques was utilized to maintain a balance between the monumental form of the temple and its religious significance
The temple as the meru or holy mountain of the gods, exhibited a wide variety of decorative flora and fauna motifs and other designs symbolic of the world of the gods. The temple, as a sacred structure, also functioned as a place to study and assimilate religious teachings. For this reason the temple was decorated with carvings telling heroic tales. For example, the stories from the Ramayana epic appear in the wall carvings on the base of the Shiva temple at the Lara Jonggrang complex in a naturalistic style which constitutes a continuation of the Indian art traditions of the Pala kingdom.
Temple structure did not always take the form of the meru magic mountain, there were other types of temples with different functions.
The Borobudur temple, which is often referred to as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, has the structure of a stupa or a kind of monument to the Buddha Mahayana religion. The basic structure of the Borobudur temple was development in India. It was known as the stupa prasadha or terraced stupa. The Borobudur temple has nine terraces in line with the philosophic concepts of the Buddha Mahayana faith. The visualization of the evolution of the human spirit is symbolized in the three levels or layers into which the temple is divided. The first level, which is called Kamadhatu consists of the base of the temple. The second lever or center layer, which has four terraces, is called Rupadhatu. The upper layer, which is topped off bu the main stupa as the crown of the temple, also consists of four terraces and is called Arupadhatu.
Like the temples in the Lara Jonggrang complex, the Borobudur temple is decorated with wall carvings. But the stories in this temple originate from the Buddha religion, not the Hindu. The sequential scenes depict the various steps in the story Buddha, like that of the Jataka seen in the carvings on the wall of the fourth terrace in the Rupadhatu level.
The naturalistic style of the Lara Jonggrang temple is seen again in the decorative elements of the Borobudur temple, although the composition is not as dynamic or dramatic. The various elements of the Borobudur temple were organized in such a way as to achieve a unified artistic expression conducive to a meditative mood, reflecting an aesthetic concept supportive of spiritual values.
The numerous similarities in the style of the statues in the Buddhists temples of Central Java to that of Indian statues illustrate the strength of the role played by the sculptural traditions of India, rooted in the Gupta period, in the development of Indonesia-Hindu art from its beginning up to the 10th century. The changes observable in the facial expressions, modifications of the clothing worn by the various gods or the Buddha were already being felt as a result of the assimilation of the Indonesian cultural environment. Signs of these changes can also be observed in the development of the sculptural arts of Indochina or Cambodia which also experienced the influence of Indian art.
In the above mentioned stage of development, the iconography of the Hindu and Buddhist statues, as well as their styles, remained close to the tradition of their place of origin. The tradition adhered to the demand that art be produced in a specific way in line with religious teachings. Because of this the modification of these traditions to bring them closer to the cultural environment of Indonesia in the development of fine art in Central Java, apparent mostly in the depiction of Indonesia’s natural environment, dances, musical instruments and clothing seen in the temple wall carvings.
The signs of change in the Indian fine art tradition in Indonesia became even more pronounced with the shift of the center of kingly power from Central to East Java. In Central Java the development of fine art had constituted an initial synthesis of the Indian and Indonesian cultures. In East Java the development of fine art was the result of continued synthesis, with the Indonesian culture playing a stronger role.
The changes readily seen in the temples built in the 13th century in East Java occurred mainly because of the reduced role of the tradition of fine art from India on one hand, and the increased influence of traditional Indonesian art on the other. The development of temple art was process of cultural transformation with reliance on the art tradition which had long existed in Indonesia. This Indonesian identity is clearly seen in the temple structure which had deviated from the tradition of Central Java candi or temples.
This pronounced change can be seen clearly in temple structure which tended to became slimmer. These changes occurred in the base, body and top of the temple, the three parts of which constituted its unity as a symbol of the cosmic mountain. The bases of the East Java temples were, in general, terraced, with the top of the temple rising up like a tower and giving an impression of slimness to the temples which was not apparent in those of the squatter Central Java temples.
The base of the Jago temple from the Singasari period, as well as the base of the main temple in the Panataran complex from Majapahit period, have several terraces, each with a different ground plan. The surface of each terrace was a site for placement of ornamentation in the form of carving and statues. The damage to the upper part of most of the temples in East java is assumed to be due to fact that the materials, like bricks and wood, used construct them deteriorated easily. The use of these materials was a new approach in the construction of temples and had an influence on the classic architecture of Bali. Unfortunately the use of bricks snd wood has resulted in many of the temples of the time being damaged or lost entirely. The use of these materials also affected the way in which ornamentation was done, with the attachment technique, which is much used in the Pura houses of worship in Bali, coming into use.
The Bali Classic architecture which carried on the architecture tradition of Majapahit has a characteristic approach to the placement of a given structure in the pura temple compound in which the main building is found in the back garden. The system of organization applied to a complex of buildings such as this different from the concentric or circular mandala system previously mentioned. This can be seen in the grouping of structures in the Panataran temple compound.
The changes in the structure and placement of East Java temples mentioned above were also apparent in the tendency toward stylization of the figures of the characters of the wayang shadows puppets. These changes meant the re-emergence of the pre-Hindu type of decoration which had long existed in Indonesia. The role of this ancient Indonesian art tradition was visible not only in the stylization of form, but also in the concentrated filling in of surfaces with ornamentation. This trend can also be observed in the East Java carving techniques if they are contrasted with those of the temples of Central Java. The carving of Ramayana stories on the main temple in the Panataran complex offers an example of these changes.
Indonesian motifs like meander, tumpal and mountain designs also appeared along with this shift in concepts of decoration. The wealth of ornamentation and decoration of the East java temples was also influenced by the addition of decorative patterns from the art of China, such as the cloud and reef motifs.
The developments in decoration apparent in the East Java temples were achieved in the Majapahit period and carried on in Bali. This continuation can be seen even today in the Bali Classic wayang kulit leather puppets and traditional Balinese paintings.
The changes in the style of art in East Java were not limited solely to the decoration found on structure, but were also apparent in statues.
The process of the formulation of the style in which images of deceased kings appeared in the sculptural art of East Java started in the Erlangga period and continued into the Singasari period. The classical style of the Singasari statues is the result of effort to refine the classical style characteristic of peak of sculptural development in Central Java. The refinement and detail in the careful work apparent in the Prajnaparamita statue, an incarnation of the queen Ken Dedes, ia a strong indication of the mastery of stone carving techniques achieved by the Indonesian artists of the time. This refining process appears to have occurred along with changes in the concept of from which were supported by the spiritual values visible in the statues of the Majapahit period.
The transformation process occurring in the culture of the Majapahit period had a major impact on iconography in which the statues of the gods were expressed through the forms of deceased kings. The king statues of Majapahit with their facial features and costumes specific to Indonesia were more magical and monumental in nature with a static frontal composition giving rise to a sense of the mysterious. The placement of an aura or field around figures with symbolized purity and sacredness was one of the indications of the emergence of a new iconography in the sculptural art of the Majapahit period. This treatment was to emerge again at a later period in the classic paintings of Bali. The achievement of new elements in sculptural art during the Majapahit period indicated a process of regeneration through ancient traditional concepts of art in the last of the development occurring in Indonesia-Hindu art.
A new tradition apparent in the development of sculptural art in the Majapahit period was the use of clay in the production of statues. This material had not previously been used for purpose. In general clay was used to produce ceramic or terracotta items like pots, water pitcher and the other containers which were necessary to the daily lives of an agrarian people. In the Majapahit period this tradition was extended to the production of small statues. These items give rise to the feeling that there may have been some influence from Chinese or Cambodian art. The importance of the terracotta statues lies in the fact that besides functioning as ornamental accents to a structure, they also constitute visual documentation of the Majapahit culture. The new realism of the teracotta dolls allow a look at the physical appearance of the figures at the center of the Majapahit kingdom
The small Teracotta statues or dolls present a portrait of the figures believed to be important in the Majapahit kingdom. Administrators, merchants, envoys, dancers and gamelan player were depicted, as well as characters from religious lore, or ordinary people representative of daily routine. The fact that several of the dolls found appear to be of Chinese or Cambodian people indicates outside influence on the Majapahit kingdom.
The sculptural art of East Java, like that of Central Java, was often done in metal, bronze in particular. The statue of the goddess Tara, a sacred figure from the Buddha Mahayana religion, from a room at the Kalasan temple in Central Java, is believed to have been made of bronze. The characteristics of the iconography of stone statues of the East Java period were also apparent in its bronze statues and the shifts in style occurring in their production which in general followed the sculptural tradition of the Pala Kingdom of northeast India.
Although Java-Hindu literature records that painting was done in the Hindu period, the tradition and styles of the paintings of that period have never been clarified.
The ornamental carvings on the temples of East java are an important source of information on the forms Hindu age painting must have taken. But no less important as a source of information on Indonesia-Hindu painting are the Bali Classic paintings, the tradition of which continues today. The drawings on lontar palmyra palm parchment and the Bali Classic wayang puppets and scrolls also function as sources of knowledge on Hindu age painting.
The Bali Classic paintings frequently carry religious themes from the Ramayana and Mahabarata legends, as well as mythological themes. Legends and stories derived from historical events are also depicted. The style employed was like that which appear, in the temple wall carvings of the Majapahit period,or the wayang style, with its flat compositional space packed with highly stylized images. This style is called wayang because it carried signs of the same type of stylization occurring in the wayang kulit leather puppets and Bali classic paintings.
The colors in Balinese paintings are limited to those derived from natural materials like bark, leaves, earth and soot. These paintings were done on long segments of cloth without the use of stretcher frames so that the result was a long painted scroll. Like the carvings done on temple walls and the drawings on palmyra palm papyrus, the function of the Balinese painting was educative in nature, putting forth the religious teaching and philosophy of the Hindu age.
As a medium of education the wayang constituted a performance in which the character of the story were portrayed by a dalang puppet master who manipulated all of the puppets as well as reciting the dialog to the accompaniment of the gamelan orchestra.
Wayang shadow puppets are made from the hide of cattle or buffaloes which is decorated and colored in line with the artistic standards set for the depiction of each individual character in the wayang stories. The original form wayang leather shadow puppets took in the Hindu period remains a mystery. What is certain is that the development of wayang into the form which exists even today, has been preserved in Bali as a classic form.
As was the case with wayang the craft of mask making grew out of religious practices. The art of mask making arose from the performance of religious dances.
Although the production of mask for religious dances has existed from the pre-Hindu period, it is difficult to find any clarification of how the masks of the Hindu period itself actually looked. Hindu literature and the temple wall carvings are source of what information is available on the early development of the Indonesia-Hindu type of mask. In relation to this the Bali Classic masks, like the classic paintings and wayang. Offer pointers on the best approach to recognizing the Indonesia-Hindu style of masks which functioned as props in classic dance.
The facial expressions of the topeng or mask symbolize the personalities of the various characters in dance performances. Therefore, the value of a mask is only truly apparent when it is being used by a dancer.
However, mask, as a wood craft, are not the only result of the Bali Classic cultural tradition which has been preserved up to now.
The development of the craft of stone carving in Bali was similar to that of wood carving which produced the ornamental statues used to decorate the upper parts and pillars of the Balinese pura temples or prayer houses and puri palace. The puri, or palaces, of Bali are decorated with both wooden statutes and carvings, which are painted to add an interesting ornamental aspect. The carvings cover wall spaces or room divides, as well as doors and window shutters.
The tradition of Bali Classic fine art is still preserved in accordance with the Bali-Hindu religion. The tradition develops continuously in reaction and fulfillment of new cultural demands.
The secularization process undergone by Bali Classic art has given rice to new values o expression in several fields of fine art to meet the needs of the growing tourist trade in Bali. This is a reflection of the continual development of the ancient’s arts with its ensuing changes in function and aesthetic values.