Indonesian-Hindu Classic Art

Art is a form of expression originating in the spiritual experience of the artist which transcends all visualization achieved through reasoning. Indonesia-Hindu art is not solely a product of in-depth thinking of perceptions based in the theory and standards of art or iconography in the tradition of Indian art. It the result of the efforts and interpretation of Indonesian artists and their fusion of two art traditions through experience and understanding in response to the demands of the Hindu culture which existed in Indonesia from the 7th to the 15th centuries
This fusion of artistic traditions went on over a period of centuries and resulted in changes in artistic styles in architecture, carving and sculpture, as well as in painting. Several art theories and standards originating in the centers or Buddhist religions (Kemper, 1959, p.10) colored the thinking of and inspired artists of Indonesia. These art activities guaranteed the continuation of adherence to religion based in the way of life of the agrarian people of Indonesia which placed the king and this family on a level with the gods. The conciliation of the two diverse religious sources can be observed in the structures, carving, sculptures and paintings of the Hindu kingdom period.
Indonesia-Hindu age temples not only reflect the aesthetic values achieved by the Indonesian architects of the time, but also reflect the expansion of artistic horizons supported by the fusion of two cultural elements with their differing traditions. The architects, assisted by highly skilled sculptors, carried out their duties to immortalize the king and his power through the production of art works based in the standards cosmic mountain, with its composition, use of space and unified, balanced and harmonious artistic sensitivities and tastes in art rooted in religious aspirations. An example of this the Lara Jonggrang temple complex in Prambanan, Central Java which is a monument to the Mataram Tua kingdom. This complex was built in the 10th century as a symbol of the enthronement of the gods of the Hindu religion.
The main temple and the smaller temples of this complex were placed in the concentric arrangement known as mandala, which symbolized the unity of the world of the gods, as well as the administrative hierarchy of the kingdom existing at the time.
The aesthetic values inherent in this temple complex of the last Central Java kingdom can be seen especially well in one of the main temples in the center of the complex. The structure of the Shiva temple exhibits a fusion and unification of the various temple elements which reflect a maturity in architectural art achieved through the development of architectural traditions over a period of three centuries.
The wealth of decoration with its perfection of stone carving techniques was utilized to maintain a balance between the monumental form of the temple and its religious significance
The temple as the meru or holy mountain of the gods, exhibited a wide variety of decorative flora and fauna motifs and other designs symbolic of the world of the gods. The temple, as a sacred structure, also functioned as a place to study and assimilate religious teachings. For this reason the temple was decorated with carvings telling heroic tales. For example, the stories from the Ramayana epic appear in the wall carvings on the base of the Shiva temple at the Lara Jonggrang complex in a naturalistic style which constitutes a continuation of the Indian art traditions of the Pala kingdom.
Temple structure did not always take the form of the meru magic mountain, there were other types of temples with different functions.
The Borobudur temple, which is often referred to as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, has the structure of a stupa or a kind of monument to the Buddha Mahayana religion. The basic structure of the Borobudur temple was development in India. It was known as the stupa prasadha or terraced stupa. The Borobudur temple has nine terraces in line with the philosophic concepts of the Buddha Mahayana faith. The visualization of the evolution of the human spirit is symbolized in the three levels or layers into which the temple is divided. The first level, which is called Kamadhatu consists of the base of the temple. The second lever or center layer, which has four terraces, is called Rupadhatu. The upper layer, which is topped off bu the main stupa as the crown of the temple, also consists of four terraces and is called Arupadhatu.
Like the temples in the Lara Jonggrang complex, the Borobudur temple is decorated with wall carvings. But the stories in this temple originate from the Buddha religion, not the Hindu. The sequential scenes depict the various steps in the story Buddha, like that of the Jataka seen in the carvings on the wall of the fourth terrace in the Rupadhatu level.
The naturalistic style of the Lara Jonggrang temple is seen again in the decorative elements of the Borobudur temple, although the composition is not as dynamic or dramatic. The various elements of the Borobudur temple were organized in such a way as to achieve a unified artistic expression conducive to a meditative mood, reflecting an aesthetic concept supportive of spiritual values.
The numerous similarities in the style of the statues in the Buddhists temples of Central Java to that of Indian statues illustrate the strength of the role played by the sculptural traditions of India, rooted in the Gupta period, in the development of Indonesia-Hindu art from its beginning up to the 10th century. The changes observable in the facial expressions, modifications of the clothing worn by the various gods or the Buddha were already being felt as a result of the assimilation of the Indonesian cultural environment. Signs of these changes can also be observed in the development of the sculptural arts of Indochina or Cambodia which also experienced the influence of Indian art.
In the above mentioned stage of development, the iconography of the Hindu and Buddhist statues, as well as their styles, remained close to the tradition of their place of origin. The tradition adhered to the demand that art be produced in a specific way in line with religious teachings. Because of this the modification of these traditions to bring them closer to the cultural environment of Indonesia in the development of fine art in Central Java, apparent mostly in the depiction of Indonesia’s natural environment, dances, musical instruments and clothing seen in the temple wall carvings.
The signs of change in the Indian fine art tradition in Indonesia became even more pronounced with the shift of the center of kingly power from Central to East Java. In Central Java the development of fine art had constituted an initial synthesis of the Indian and Indonesian cultures. In East Java the development of fine art was the result of continued synthesis, with the Indonesian culture playing a stronger role.
The changes readily seen in the temples built in the 13th century in East Java occurred mainly because of the reduced role of the tradition of fine art from India on one hand, and the increased influence of traditional Indonesian art on the other. The development of temple art was process of cultural transformation with reliance on the art tradition which had long existed in Indonesia. This Indonesian identity is clearly seen in the temple structure which had deviated from the tradition of Central Java candi or temples.
This pronounced change can be seen clearly in temple structure which tended to became slimmer. These changes occurred in the base, body and top of the temple, the three parts of which constituted its unity as a symbol of the cosmic mountain. The bases of the East Java temples were, in general, terraced, with the top of the temple rising up like a tower and giving an impression of slimness to the temples which was not apparent in those of the squatter Central Java temples.
The base of the Jago temple from the Singasari period, as well as the base of the main temple in the Panataran complex from Majapahit period, have several terraces, each with a different ground plan. The surface of each terrace was a site for placement of ornamentation in the form of carving and statues. The damage to the upper part of most of the temples in East java is assumed to be due to fact that the materials, like bricks and wood, used construct them deteriorated easily. The use of these materials was a new approach in the construction of temples and had an influence on the classic architecture of Bali. Unfortunately the use of bricks snd wood has resulted in many of the temples of the time being damaged or lost entirely. The use of these materials also affected the way in which ornamentation was done, with the attachment technique, which is much used in the Pura houses of worship in Bali, coming into use.
The Bali Classic architecture which carried on the architecture tradition of Majapahit has a characteristic approach to the placement of a given structure in the pura temple compound in which the main building is found in the back garden. The system of organization applied to a complex of buildings such as this different from the concentric or circular mandala system previously mentioned. This can be seen in the grouping of structures in the Panataran temple compound.
The changes in the structure and placement of East Java temples mentioned above were also apparent in the tendency toward stylization of the figures of the characters of the wayang shadows puppets. These changes meant the re-emergence of the pre-Hindu type of decoration which had long existed in Indonesia. The role of this ancient Indonesian art tradition was visible not only in the stylization of form, but also in the concentrated filling in of surfaces with ornamentation. This trend can also be observed in the East Java carving techniques if they are contrasted with those of the temples of Central Java. The carving of Ramayana stories on the main temple in the Panataran complex offers an example of these changes.
Indonesian motifs like meander, tumpal and mountain designs also appeared along with this shift in concepts of decoration. The wealth of ornamentation and decoration of the East java temples was also influenced by the addition of decorative patterns from the art of China, such as the cloud and reef motifs.
The developments in decoration apparent in the East Java temples were achieved in the Majapahit period and carried on in Bali. This continuation can be seen even today in the Bali Classic wayang kulit leather puppets and traditional Balinese paintings.
The changes in the style of art in East Java were not limited solely to the decoration found on structure, but were also apparent in statues.
The process of the formulation of the style in which images of deceased kings appeared in the sculptural art of East Java started in the Erlangga period and continued into the Singasari period. The classical style of the Singasari statues is the result of effort to refine the classical style characteristic of peak of sculptural development in Central Java. The refinement and detail in the careful work apparent in the Prajnaparamita statue, an incarnation of the queen Ken Dedes, ia a strong indication of the mastery of stone carving techniques achieved by the Indonesian artists of the time. This refining process appears to have occurred along with changes in the concept of from which were supported by the spiritual values visible in the statues of the Majapahit period.
The transformation process occurring in the culture of the Majapahit period had a major impact on iconography in which the statues of the gods were expressed through the forms of deceased kings. The king statues of Majapahit with their facial features and costumes specific to Indonesia were more magical and monumental in nature with a static frontal composition giving rise to a sense of the mysterious. The placement of an aura or field around figures with symbolized purity and sacredness was one of the indications of the emergence of a new iconography in the sculptural art of the Majapahit period. This treatment was to emerge again at a later period in the classic paintings of Bali. The achievement of new elements in sculptural art during the Majapahit period indicated a process of regeneration through ancient traditional concepts of art in the last of the development occurring in Indonesia-Hindu art.
A new tradition apparent in the development of sculptural art in the Majapahit period was the use of clay in the production of statues. This material had not previously been used for purpose. In general clay was used to produce ceramic or terracotta items like pots, water pitcher and the other containers which were necessary to the daily lives of an agrarian people. In the Majapahit period this tradition was extended to the production of small statues. These items give rise to the feeling that there may have been some influence from Chinese or Cambodian art. The importance of the terracotta statues lies in the fact that besides functioning as ornamental accents to a structure, they also constitute visual documentation of the Majapahit culture. The new realism of the teracotta dolls allow a look at the physical appearance of the figures at the center of the Majapahit kingdom
The small Teracotta statues or dolls present a portrait of the figures believed to be important in the Majapahit kingdom. Administrators, merchants, envoys, dancers and gamelan player were depicted, as well as characters from religious lore, or ordinary people representative of daily routine. The fact that several of the dolls found appear to be of Chinese or Cambodian people indicates outside influence on the Majapahit kingdom.
The sculptural art of East Java, like that of Central Java, was often done in metal, bronze in particular. The statue of the goddess Tara, a sacred figure from the Buddha Mahayana religion, from a room at the Kalasan temple in Central Java, is believed to have been made of bronze. The characteristics of the iconography of stone statues of the East Java period were also apparent in its bronze statues and the shifts in style occurring in their production which in general followed the sculptural tradition of the Pala Kingdom of northeast India.
Although Java-Hindu literature records that painting was done in the Hindu period, the tradition and styles of the paintings of that period have never been clarified.
The ornamental carvings on the temples of East java are an important source of information on the forms Hindu age painting must have taken. But no less important as a source of information on Indonesia-Hindu painting are the Bali Classic paintings, the tradition of which continues today. The drawings on lontar palmyra palm parchment and the Bali Classic wayang puppets and scrolls also function as sources of knowledge on Hindu age painting.
The Bali Classic paintings frequently carry religious themes from the Ramayana and Mahabarata legends, as well as mythological themes. Legends and stories derived from historical events are also depicted. The style employed was like that which appear, in the temple wall carvings of the Majapahit period,or the wayang style, with its flat compositional space packed with highly stylized images. This style is called wayang because it carried signs of the same type of stylization occurring in the wayang kulit leather puppets and Bali classic paintings.
The colors in Balinese paintings are limited to those derived from natural materials like bark, leaves, earth and soot. These paintings were done on long segments of cloth without the use of stretcher frames so that the result was a long painted scroll. Like the carvings done on temple walls and the drawings on palmyra palm papyrus, the function of the Balinese painting was educative in nature, putting forth the religious teaching and philosophy of the Hindu age.
As a medium of education the wayang constituted a performance in which the character of the story were portrayed by a dalang puppet master who manipulated all of the puppets as well as reciting the dialog to the accompaniment of the gamelan orchestra.
Wayang shadow puppets are made from the hide of cattle or buffaloes which is decorated and colored in line with the artistic standards set for the depiction of each individual character in the wayang stories. The original form wayang leather shadow puppets took in the Hindu period remains a mystery. What is certain is that the development of wayang into the form which exists even today, has been preserved in Bali as a classic form.
As was the case with wayang the craft of mask making grew out of religious practices. The art of mask making arose from the performance of religious dances.
Although the production of mask for religious dances has existed from the pre-Hindu period, it is difficult to find any clarification of how the masks of the Hindu period itself actually looked. Hindu literature and the temple wall carvings are source of what information is available on the early development of the Indonesia-Hindu type of mask. In relation to this the Bali Classic masks, like the classic paintings and wayang. Offer pointers on the best approach to recognizing the Indonesia-Hindu style of masks which functioned as props in classic dance.
The facial expressions of the topeng or mask symbolize the personalities of the various characters in dance performances. Therefore, the value of a mask is only truly apparent when it is being used by a dancer.
However, mask, as a wood craft, are not the only result of the Bali Classic cultural tradition which has been preserved up to now.
The development of the craft of stone carving in Bali was similar to that of wood carving which produced the ornamental statues used to decorate the upper parts and pillars of the Balinese pura temples or prayer houses and puri palace. The puri, or palaces, of Bali are decorated with both wooden statutes and carvings, which are painted to add an interesting ornamental aspect. The carvings cover wall spaces or room divides, as well as doors and window shutters.
The tradition of Bali Classic fine art is still preserved in accordance with the Bali-Hindu religion. The tradition develops continuously in reaction and fulfillment of new cultural demands.
The secularization process undergone by Bali Classic art has given rice to new values o expression in several fields of fine art to meet the needs of the growing tourist trade in Bali. This is a reflection of the continual development of the ancient’s arts with its ensuing changes in function and aesthetic values.

[+/-]  baca selengkapnya... »»

Classic Indonesia-Islamic Art

The art continuity in the development of Indonesia-Hindu fine art carried it over into new traditions in the age of the Islamic kings.
As was true in the age of Hindu kingdoms, the development of Islamic art in Indonesia was centralized in the palaces of the kings. In these cultural centers the art were developed and shaped in accordance with both the ancient art traditions and the new values being introduced.
In its initial period of development, the Islamic art of Indonesia was the result of the assimilation of the existing Indonesia-Hindu art traditions in relation to new standards and functions. The Islamic religion, with its new cultural values, did not have a major impact on the image of the fine arts in the beginning. Eventually, however, Islam’s tolerant nature allowed for and supported the process of continuity in traditional fine art, leading into new forms.
The development of Islamic fine art in Indonesia grew out the tradition of craft. The stone architecture of the Hindu period, with the exception of stone burial sites and gateways, did not develop much. Other structures, such as mosques and palaces, were the result of the wood-based architecture which was much older and developed for use in the natural environment of Indonesia
The structure of Islamic burial sites in Indonesia was based in the concepts inherent in the construction of prehistoric burial sites and the later temple based. There was one type of burial site, however, which did not originate from the pre-Islamic period. This type is one of the oldest of those constructed before the Islamic kingdoms were formed. This type of burial place originated from Gujarat in India, the area from which Islam was spread into Indonesia. Several of these Gujarat-style graves can be found in Samudra Pasai and Gresik. The Gujarat-style, however, was not widely employed or repeated in the construction of graves in Indonesia. In fact, the type of burial site whose structure originated in the shape of the punden worship site or the candi temple was consistently used to determine the shape of the under structure of the type burial site known as kijing. The two pillars called maesan also used were reminiscent of the structural decorations of the upper parts of temples, or other symbolic structures from the Indonesia-Hindu religion.
The cultural transformation process occurring during the period of the establishment of Islamic authority by the Wali or Moslem saints in the coastal areas saw the artistic traditions of the Hindu period become the basis for the development of Islamic architecture in Indonesia. The two main types of structures left the Islamic period are the mosques and palaces.
The oldest mosques in Banten, Cirebon, Demak, Kudus, Jepara, and Tuban are examples of mosques whose structural basis was derived from that of the pendapa meeting hall of the Hindu age. Mosques done in the pendapa style were also built in Madura, Sumatra and Kalimantan, all areas in which meetings halls were known and used.
These meeting halls with a large, central open space were constructed of wood with rows of pillars supporting a pyramid-shaped roof. This basic structure was converted into a mosque through the construction of a prayer room with a recess or niche in which the pulpit was placed. This space was enclosed with a wall made of bricks.
The tradition of using bricks in construction carried over from Majapahit was also seen in the construction of the gateway and fence surrounding the mosque. The structure of the gateway was reminiscent of that of the entryway to temples, with the exception being the omission or conversion of the ornamentation so that the result was more in keeping with the demands of Islam. The structure of mosque or cemetery gateway was not much different from that of the gateways of the previously mentioned pura houses of worship in Bali.
In general the mosques in Indonesia lacked the wealth of decoration and ornamentation of the mosques in the other Islamic nations of the time. Decoration was found only on the wall of the niche in the prayer room, and reflected the decorative traditions of the Majapahit period. The ornamentation was achieved by applying a plaster mixture to brick wall. Hindu flora motifs were then carved into the surface of the plaster. This technique can be observed in the ancient mosques of Cirebon, Demak, Kudus and Jepara.
Arabic calligraphy motif had yet to become the main characteristic of decoration in these ancient mosques. In fact pieces of Chinese porcelain embedded in the walls indicate a touch of the Chinese culture in the initial stages of the development of the Indonesia-Islam culture. This was particularly true of the mosques found in the coastal areas of Java. The influence of the Chinese culture was also apparent in the style of the decorations in and object found at the ancient palaces or the graves of the Wali or Moslem saints like those in Gunung Jati Cirebon.
As was stated above, palaces had been the centers of cultural activities since the Hindu period and habit was carried over into the age of Islam. The palaces also functioned as the centers of administration for the kingdoms and as the homes of kings. Therefore, in accordance with the ancient cosmic-magic view of the Indonesian culture, the palaces were considered the mystic centers radiating influence over all aspects of society.
The organization and construction of the halls in the palace or kraton complex was therefore a direct reflection of the life philosophy inherent in the feudal agrarian culture.
The oldest kraton or palaces still in existence like those in Cirebon, West Java, and Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta in Central java, are viewed as remnants of the classic architecture of the Islamic age, although they were repaired and renovated during the Dutch colonial period.
Visitor to these places would first pass through the main gate and the courtyard, an important element of the unity of the kraton complex, with their banyan trees. They would then enter the halls which were the administrative centers for the kingdom. These included the hall functioning as throne room, one where trials were held, and another for ceremonies attended by the king. Once visitors passed through the gateway to the ceremonial hall, they had entered the main section of the kraton which consists of structures and rooms functioning as performance halls for the wayang shadow puppet theater, the king’s reception hall, the room used for the circumcision of princes, the hall for the performance of dances and the karawitan chorus and gamelan orchestra.
All of the halls in the kraton complex were constructed in an architectural tradition which dictated that each structure take a form in accordance with its function. The ground plans, shape and the construction of the roofs all tool on various forms such as joglo, limas and tajug.
The aesthetic values of any given people, as reflected in their palaces, are not apparent only in the outer structures, but in the interiors as well.
The throne room, with its bare wood construction and symbolically painted decorative carvings, offered a sense of glory and put forth an image of nobility. The carvings on pillars, beams, walls and ceiling were all done in line with the artistic standards of the palace. The appearance of the decorations was calculated not only in terms of aesthetic, but also in terms of the status or sacral value of the kraton. Several structural decorations, such as the bases and the capitals of the pillars, the tops of partitions and the beams supporting the roof, are elements which reinforce the nobility of the interior of the kraton. Surface decorations appear on the walls, the partitions, the ceilings, doors and shutters. These take the form of decorative carvings and the ornamental plaster. The carved wooden panels hung on the walls along with glass paintings, both of which carry symbolic meaning, are other important decorative elements.
The wealth of decoration of the palace interiors reflects the advancements made in development of the craft. Carving skills are also apparent in the palace furniture like tables, chairs, beds, cupboards and many other items. The exact source of the tradition of wood carving employed in the production of this furniture remains unclear, although there is a similarity in motif and design to furniture originating from Europe and China.
Besides the functional objects mentioned above, the kraton also houses ceremonial items and heirlooms like weapons, gamelan, palace carriages, flags and standards, wayang, masks and others.
One of the heirloom weapons of the palace was the keris dagger. These daggers not only functioned as weapons of warfare, but also symbolized the character of the wearer and functioned as an attribute and accessory for the wardrobes of kings and nobles.
As an example of metal working skills the keris was mentioned in several historical documents from the Hindu age. The fact that the keris was in use during the Majapahit period can confirmed with a look at the carvings on the walls at the Panataran temple. There is therefore a strong possibility that the keris was being made in preceding period among other items of palace art. Due to the expansive area covered by the Majapahit kingdom, the metal working skills required in dagger making were mastered in several types of keris developed, like the Balinese-style dagger and those done in the styles of Madura, Sumatra and Sulawesi, among others.
The Islamic kings, in particular those of the Mataram age, developed the keris dagger, along with spears and sword of court art.
The type of keris dagger known as the wilah was forged by expert metal smiths called empu. This type of dagger would be made in a way shape like that of a creeping snake, or a straight form ending in a convex point, depending on its symbolic meaning. Symbolic significance also can be seen in the decoration on the surface of the pamor type of dagger. This decoration reflected not only aesthetic values, but also was filled with symbolic meaning.
Arabic calligraphy can be found on the decorated surfaced of the pamor dagger as well as wayang and other motifs originating from the Hindu age. The symbolism of the keris is also apparent in the handles which are called ukiran. The handle was made from variety of carefully selected woods, and was decorated with designs based on mythical animals, human forms, or wayang. The designs based in human or animal forms were recognizable due o the standards and teachings of Islam. It is the handles which enable a concrete differentiation between the keris of the Islamic age and the keris of the Hindu period, like those found in Bali with the handles carved in the form of giants.
The beauty of the wood carving found on keris it also visible in the sheath known as wrangka, which was made from a specifically selected kind of wood. The upper end of the wrangka was called ladrang when it had a curved shape rounded. The part of sheath closest to the handle was covered with a layer of either brass or silver, or at times gilded with gold. This protective metal layer was called pendok and was decorated with a variety of techniques.
In above discussion of Bali Classic art, the masks used in dance and drama performances were mentioned. The tradition of mask making, or rather the carving of masks with chisels, originated in the Hindu period, but was carried over by the mask makers into the Islamic period, and is in fact still being developed with a variety of techniques.
During the Mataram kingdom the wayang and karawitan chorus and gamelan orchestra experienced many advances with the development of mask dances for the purpose of telling the wayang stories. This innovation gave rise to the wayang wong of Japanese opera with its masked performers.
The use of masks in dance-drama was supportive of the role of the mask as an educative-communicative media based in Islamic teachings. And in this way the making of masks previously limited to court circles was copied by all levels of society as the message of Islam spread. This expansion of horizons also gave rise to greater variety of masks influenced by the flavor of local cultures.
The development of the art of mask making occurred alongside that of the art leather puppet making. This can be seen particularly in relation to the facial expressions, the stylization of certain parts of the face, as well as in the coloring. A formula was achieved which dictated the type of facial expressions or wanda depicted. The wanda expressions included the rude rough type and the fierce, refined, knightly, giant or monster types, as well as the clown and god types, along with a variety of others.
As can be seen from the above discussion, there is a relationship between the creative forms that the wayang puppets and topeng masks took.

The wayang puppet theater of the Hindu age was further developed by the wali and Islamic kings. As was stated above, the form the wayang puppets took was based in the decorative carvings on the temples of East java. The forms of the wayang character were modified until they fulfilled Islamic concepts and standards which did not accept the realistic portrayal of human forms. The symbolic forms achieved through his process of stylization constituted the transformation of the wayang prototypes of the Hindu age through changes in various elements, into wayang puppets and their three dimensional wooden counterparts. Because the forms the wayang took were symbolic, the individual wayang puppets were known and recognized by their wanda or expressions, which were the visualization of human personality types. This was also the case in the development of masks.
Wayang took many forms including the wayang kulit or wayang purwa leather puppets; watang papan or wayang krucil and wayang beber, which were painted story scrolls.
Another type of wayang was the wayang golek which was a three dimensional puppet whose head, torso and arms were made of wood. The head and torso were joined by a bamboo rod which was inserted through the hollow torso and attached to the head through insertion into a notch in the neck. This bamboo rod could be manipulated by the dalang puppet master.
The torso and the bottom part of the bamboo rod, which served as a handle, were covered with cloth which took the form of the type of clothing worn in dance performances.
There were also wayang forms which were differentiated according to which story they were being used to tell. Most of the wayang stories were related to the Ramayana and Mahabarata legends which had been developed to fit into the Indonesia-Hindu culture. The type of wayang used to tell Islamic stories and the Panji tales were known as wayang menak or wayang sasak, while the stories of the prophets and those the ambiya were told through the wayang dobel. The wayang dupara, wayang gedog and wayang krucil, or wayang klitik mentioned above were used to present semi-historical stories.
As in the case of the topeng or mask art, the art of wayang spread out from the palaces to all levels of society as a media for religious education. Because of this a wide variety of wayang with local color sprang up in the various regions.
The clothing painted onto the wayang figures, or actually made from fabric, reflected the designs characteristic of batik textiles. Batik fabric is created by the blocking out of areas with wax and the dyeing of the unmasked sections of the cloth in order to achieve the desired design or motif. The production of batik was done according to the garments of royalty. The hot, liquid wax used to delineate which areas dye at a given step in the batiking process was applied with a bamboo and copper tool called the canting. Dye sometimes also was applied through the canting.
It is certain that batik was known as early as the Hindu period because the kings and gods and goddesses depicted in the statues of the Singhasari period were garbed in batik. The motifs in the batik of the Hindu period were inspired by the variety of motifs used in the temple carvings, which ranged from flora and fauna motifs to the symbols of the Hindu religion. The batik designs of the Islamic age were stylized adaptations of the realistic Hindu motifs and designs. The Hindu motifs were stylized through the modification of certain parts of the flora or fauna depicted into geometric shapes. An example of the stylization of a flora motif is the mirong bird wing design. Examples of the conversion of floral or plant motifs into stylized geometric forms are the kawung and parangrusak motifs. These decorative batik motifs also indicated the status of the person wearing them. For example, batik with the parangrusak motif would indicate the wearer was a member of the royal family.
The batik motifs of the Islamic period also included Arabic calligraphy mosque motifs, carpet designs and wayang motifs. The mega mendung cloud motif and the coral reef motif known as wadasan which originated from Chinese influence also enriched the batik of that period.
Because batik was used in palace ceremonies it was produced in line with strict technical and aesthetic standard. The batik makers were required to have the highest level of skill and sensitivity of taste necessary to the production of designs which did not go out of the bounds of the established standards.
Batik, as a classic art centered in the palace, was not only known as the formal attire of kings, but was also used in the standards and flags utilized in royal ceremonies. The Arabic calligraphy motifs and the designs symbolic of the kingdom played a role in the composition of the designs found on the royal standards or banners.
The eventual extension of the use of classic batik to the public resulted in a wide variety of regional or local batik motifs of different styles. As batik fabric became more of a daily need among the people new ways of producing it evolved. This took batik production from the realm of the original tedious hand painting method which required a high level of dexterity and skill, to the mass production technique which involved the dipping of a copper stamp with a set design into wax before it was pressed onto the surface of the cloth. Diferentiation is made between the hand painted batik and the stamped batik is terms of its artistic and aesthetic value.
The attractiveness of the Arabic alphabet motivated the development of Islamic calligraphy with its varied functions. In classic Indonesia-Islam art the Arabic calligraphy was not widely used to decorate mosques. However, Arabic calligraphy appears in several of the mosques found in areas outside Java where the mosques of other nations with their use of calligraphy for decoration were used as patterns. Mosque like those built in Aceh and Medan exhibit a wealth of Arabic calligraphy and a style to that of the mosques of Persia or India.
Most of the Arabic calligraphy found in Indonesia is used more as a decorative motif which emphasizes its aesthetic value rather than as a form of writing.
As was the case with the calligraphy motif appearing on the handles of the keris daggers previously discussed, the calligraphy on the banners or standards also had a symbolic significance. This use of calligraphy to convey a symbolic meaning is also seen in the golass paintings known as Macan Ali found in the Kasepuhan palace in Cirebon. Macan Ali is a kind of glass painting in which the form of a tiger is composed of Arabic letters to form the symbol for the Kasepuhan kingdom.
Glass painting, a form of classic painting was developed through the assimilation of wayang motifs as its central subject. These motifs were composed of the Arabic calligraphy used for prayer and of verses from the Islamic holy book the Koran. The main purpose of the Arabic alphabet in these paintings was to fill in the surface of the wayang figures which were in turn made up of string of words written in Arabic calligraphy.
The modification of the wayang was not extended to the wayang beber scrolls which continued to appear as a rolled up segment of fabric with story painted on it. In the presentation of the wayang beber stories the dalang puppet master would unroll the scroll as he told the tale depicted there. This type of storytelling, painting had been known since the Hindu age and was further developed with changes in form and story lines which made this art form more appropriate to the needs of the Indonesia’s answer to Persia’s Islamic miniatures in terms of functioning as an educative media.
Both the glass painting and the wayang beber have been carried on as traditional art forms in certain regions of the archipelago. In fact, up to now, these painting forms constitute a source of ideas for contemporary Indonesian artists seeking new ways of expressing themselves.
Besides the calligraphy wayang of Islam in Indonesia, the art of expressive calligraphy also developed as a contemporary art form. On the other hand the techniques employed in the production of classic batik are utilized by contemporary artists as a media of expression which is termed batik painting.

[+/-]  baca selengkapnya... »»